The Success of Planning Partnerships : Three National Park Service Case Studies

he benefits of federal, state, local, and private partnerships that support National Park Service (NPS) planning have evolved rapidly in recent decades. For instance, park planning has been opened up to comprehensive public participation. This has not always been the case; historically Congress often designated new federal parks without eliciting much public comment. A more inclusive approach to park planning has developed from a host of diverse influences. Societal expectations that stemmed from of the tumultuous 1960s demands for participatory democracy prompted enactment of legislation to direct federal agencies and bureaus, including NPS, to encourage a host of external parties to involve themselves in the planning process. Park planning became interdisciplinary, driven by environmental compliance that dictates comprehensive public participation. The Park Service has an informal cadre of public involvement specialists who have developed a range of useful tools to assist the planning teams. Contemporary park and central-office managers have assumed a more supportive posture towards public participation duties mandated by Congress. Legislation such as the National Environmental Policy Act has been translated and codified at the departmental, agency, and bureau level into public policy. For example, NPS’s 1988 Management Policies defined public involvement requirements: